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BROOKS, M.P. (1988) Four critical junctures in the history of the planning profession: An exercise in hindsight, Journal of the American Planning Association, 54, 241-248.
HALL, P. (1989) The turbulent eight decade: Challenges to American city planning, Journal of the American Planning Association, 55, 275-282.
FULTON, W. (1989) Visionaries, deal makers, incrementalists: The divided world of urban planning, Governing, 2(9), 52-58.
Review by William Paul
"...today's impatient politics and restless real estate markets demand short-term results. In planning now, the (visionary) is likely to find himself...out of a job.... Ultimately, to survive, planners must learn to bridge the gap. They must solve the problem of self-definition by adapting themselves to the political tenor of the times--serving, essentially, as architects, social workers, city managers, real estate developers or whatever else is called for. Yet they still must somehow remain planners at heart, bringing to government the long-term perspective, idealism and concern for the public agenda that have historically exhibited. It is a dilemma that would arise only for an oddly idealistic, oddly ill-defined profession such as urban planning."
Author Fulton serves a quick overview of the "state of planning in America" and interviews three then prominent players--Edmond Bacon, a retired Philadelphia planner known for his master plans and traditional views; Gerald Trimble, a real estate "deal junkie" from L.A. who works the short-term deal within the private sector; and James Duncan, a former planner official from Austin who witnessed the boom and bust there in the 1970s and 80s. See Key Points above.
HEIKKILA, E.J. & GRIFFIN, M. (1995) Confucian planning or planning confusion? Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 269-279.
Review by Brad Bressler
The article "Confucian Planning or Planning Confusion" examines the appropriateness of training eastern planners in the western context as there has been an increase in eastern Asian students attending western planning schools in recent years. The article also takes a look at how culture, planning and urban form are related in eastern Asia and how they compare to the west. China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Japan are all nations with a Confucian tradition. There are three primary interrelated aspects of planning and culture. Urban form is a reflection of the culture in which it exists. Culture conversely has an effect on the urban form through its influence on planning practice. The urban form then shapes how culture functions. Planning is done in accordance with what the culture considers acceptable. If one considers these three influences of planning, it is easy to see how eastern and western planning ideas do not mesh well.
There are three primary schools of philosophical thought in eastern Asia. The Confucian idea centers on highly educated individuals who share their wisdom for the benefit of the state. Taoism emphasizes the contradiction between the artificial world of civilization and the true world of nature. The Legalists take the view that the state is a machine and that people simply serve as cogs in the machine. Confucianism has had the greatest and most long standing impact on the region regarding planning efforts. Taoist influence is witnessed in structures that attempt to conform to nature. Legalist influence is obvious in powerful structures that dominate the landscape.
Confucianism's central idea is attaining harmony with the social environment. This carries over into planning in the sense that Confucianism believes in aesthetic order. The western ideal focuses on rational order. This promotes a uniformity in development patterns versus uniqueness and diversity in Confucianism.
There are several noticeable differences between eastern Asian cities and western ones. Cities in Confucian Asia have much greater densities than those in western cultures. Space is allocated quite sparingly. In east Asia land use is very mixed. The diversification takes place on a small scale with many different uses in a small geographic area. In western cities land use is very homogenous within small areas or neighborhoods. The diversity is present on a large scale where like land uses take up a larger space in less areas. The pattern of movement of people and vehicles also differs. In the east space is limited and people shuffle through crowds as necessary to get around. In the west people feel as though they are entitled to a trajectory, claiming a greater personal space. Eastern culture also embraces public establishments such as restaurants and bars as meeting places versus homes or offices. All of these issues are planning related and must be dealt with differently.
There are several Confucian traditions which are quite different than western culture. Social hierarchies are quite rigid. The western ideal is much more egalitarian. The uses of land is paradoxical in this sense, however since western land uses are hierarchical, while mixed land use is more prevalent in Asia. Paternalism also has a role in Confucianism as the planner of a city is supposed to give guidance to the familial community, where in western society the planner is not viewed as being so authoritative. Generations are chained together through ancestor worship in Confucianism. Patriarchs feel it is worthwhile to sacrifice consumption for the good of future generations. This carries over to investments in infrastructure and savings to fund collective investments. In the west, such wise investment is not found as large public debts have been accumulated at a cost to future generations. Education is important in Confucian society in that the highly educated are given a great deal of power and prestige. While education is important in the west, it is not to this extent regarding the maintenance of social order. The concept of law is relative, depending on particular circumstances. Western laws are more abstract and all encompassing. This carries over into the enforcement and implementation of planning. Finally, citizen participation in planning and government in general is almost nonexistent in Confucian Asia. The idea of good government is where the wise leader is put in charge. In the west the planning process is much more egalitarian with involvement coming from more levels of the social structure.
It is quite clear that the Confucian and western ways of thinking
are very different. Urban form in east Asia can only be interpreted
properly in light of the Confucian culture, not western culture.
Since planning education in North America focuses on our value
system, we tend to see eastern cities as needing improvement from
the western perspective. Our view is that our way of planning
is the correct, rational way. The question is, do we attempt to
remake planners from abroad to fit the western image? A balance
should be found so the cultural and educational interests of all
planners are taken into account.
SUSSKIND, L. et alii. (1995) Planning practice: Resolving disputes the kinder, gentler way, in Planning, 61, 16-20.
Review by Anita Forst
According to the article, Resolving Disputes the Kinder, Gentler Way, by Lawrence Susskind, the key to the planning profession is to realize that not everyone is going to agree with the elements of a plan or the planning process. Instead of being opponent to the opposition, Susskind suggests using consensus building and mediation in the planning process to resolve long-standing disputes and other problems. Susskind supports his idea by giving a brief history of the use of mediation in the planning field, the integration of roles between mediator and planner and several case studies of instances where mediation and consensus building worked in communities.
Susskind argues that mediation has been solving disputes in abundance during the last 20 years and he makes it quite clear as to why it works. Mediation forces opposing parties to talk and come to a consensus or middle ground. These sessions tend to be informal which would allow joint problem solving. Mediation seems to serve as an arena in which two or more parties can educated each other on their differences and come to some sort of understanding and compassion.
The article announces that seventeen states have offices of mediation usually contained within the governor's office or the natural resources agency. Susskind also points out that there is an office of mediation in the Minnesota State Planning Agency, which proves his point in the integration of the role of being planner and mediator.
Because of the daily trials ina planner's occupation, there will inevitably be political backlash, lawsuits and citizen disapproval. Due to this, Susskind argued that planners "...are in a good position to serve as independent mediators." Planners stand in between the needs of the city and the wants of the citizens.
The argument of successful mediation attempts within the planning field is supported by several case studies of communities and organizations across the country. In the case of a North Carolina community, the chamber with the help of mediators from Orange County, brought people together to help solve the problems of a housing shortage. The group of people consisted of planners, elected officials, real estate brokers, mortgage lenders, environmental leaders and community action agencies. In the past, there was a real fear in the idea of conducting a meeting with these groups of people because of differences in their interests. Within a day, there was a consensus on several issues and strategies. Another case pointed out how mediation resolved the differences between homeowners and an animal protection group concerning a population of beavers that was causing flood areas through some properties.
Susskind successfully proves his argument that mediation and consensus building work in resolving disputes between the needs of the city and the wants of the citizens. Instead of being an opponent to the opposition, the planner should utilize dispute resolution skills in matter of conflicts.
VAN WART, M. (1996) The sources of ethical decision making for individuals in the public sector, Public Administration Review, 56, 525-533.
BEATLEY, T. (1984) Applying moral principles to growth management,
Journal of the American Planning Association, 50, 459-469.
BENNIS, W. (1990) Quitting on principle, in Why Leaders
Can't Lead. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Review by Steve Robertson
BOK, S. (1983) Whistleblowing and leaking, in Secrets. NY: Random House.
Review by Luayn Murphy
This article addresses the issues for a person who chooses to do what they feel is the correct action to take.
The article addresses three elements which are involved in whistleblowing. The elements of dissent, breach of loyalty and accusations. Dissent or to expose misconduct and to assign responsibility to the problem. The loyalty of your colleagues is pitted against the publics interest. Specific individuals are accused of the action.
The other option was to just leak the information. To leak would be disclosure of information in a covert manner. According to the author, "Leaking has become one of the main forms of communication about matters of public interest." Leaking is an individual moral choice that each person will have to decide. Sometimes when information is leaked it may not be viewed as credible therefore, the facts may not be checked out and the information may just get tossed. The person receiving the information without a source may decide they have enough facts and move forward but, again this is the persons decision on how much information to leak.
Whistleblowing should be the last resort because of destructive effects. The consequences for an employee could be any of the following: position could be downgraded, a psychiatric exam, undesirable job tasks, too much or too little job responsibilities, and even firing. the employee needs to weigh the argument.
the way the organization addresses the issues before they happen are the following: filtering process for information, open door policy, internal review boards, ombudsmen, bill of rights for employees, and consumer representatives or citizen representatives on the board of trustees of the organization. These tools help to solidify the complaint or to defuse it before there is a problem. this also helps to distinguish between urgent matters and long range planning the organization needs to address.
The issue to keep in mind is that whistleblowers and leakers provide
a public service.
KIDDER, R.M. (1995) Universal human values: Finding an ethical common ground, Public Management, 77(6), 4-9.
Review by Tom Balster
Rushworth Kidder's thesis and investigation of the world's various cultures' values, morals, and ethics is not to "discover the ethical weaknesses of various nations" (Kidder 1995, 4). "Their is a pressing need for shared values in our age of global interdependence without consensus" (Kidder 1995, 5). This becomes imperative as Kidder discovered when he interviewed individuals from 16 various nations, they all believed that "the ethical barometer is falling" (Kidder 1995, 4). A nations perception of a different culture as having less or not as strong an ethical fiber as theirs has historically caused conflicts of varied consequences. This new world of millisecond communication between different cultures has the potential to lead to greater conflicts or strengthen "an underlying moral presence shared by all humanity - of precepts so fundamental that they dissolve borders, transcend races, and outlast cultural traditions" (Kidder 1995, 5).
From Kidder's interviews he found a "core of human values upon which they probably would have agreed" (Kidder 1995, 5). Kidder's core of human values are: love, truthfulness, fairness, freedom, unity, tolerance, responsibility, and respect for life. Kidder believe a continuing investigation and analysis of national and cultural values humanity will be able to develop a code of values that can be used as the foundation for reducing conflict.
So what good is this code of values? It gives us a foundation for building goals, plans, and tactics where things really happen and the world really changes. it unifies us, giving us a home territory of consensus and agreement. And it gives us a way-not the way, but a way-to reply when asked, "Whose values will you teach?" Answering this last question, as we tumble into the twenty-first century with the twentieth's sense of ethics, may be one of the most valuable mental activities of our time (Kidder 1995, 9).
"Why Should Administrator Be Concerned?" (emphasis in original)(Kidder 1995, 6). Administrators and Planners should be concerned, because "a focus on shared values can help officials to design and evaluate the progress of community goals and objectives" (Kidder 1995, 6). To objectively evaluate plans they must be omniscient of their communities values by asking, "ls this goal/plan/result consistent with our stated values?" instead of our current penchant towards being influenced by ones personal values. "Looking at issues from the vantage of shared values tends to emphasize areas of agreement, heal divisiveness, and reduce finger pointing among factions-powerful incentives for encouraging the peaceful solution of conflicts" (Kidder 1995, 6). Administrators especially planners are invariably pushed to the limits of ethical behavior, for they are often the only person who has the ability to resolve the conflicts of values that are raised and often may hold one of the value as their own.
These conflicts-between truth and loyalty, fairness and compassion,
the short term and long term, and individual and community, respectively-each
pit two powerful core values against each other. And when two
such values come into conflict, we have what those of us at the
Institute of Global Ethics describe as a "right-versus-right
dilemma." Understanding that the really tough dilemmas are
created when core values come into conflict is an important first
step in learning how to resolve them (Kidder 1995,6).
HILLIER, J. (1995) The unwritten law of planning: common sense, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 292-296.
Review by Johanna Isakson
Jean Hillier feels "the time has come to show Episteme and rigid technocracy the red card" (296) in regard to planning education. Hillier's argument for the inclusion of common sense in planning theory education, stems from her belief that the skills which aid in the successful implementation of planning are far removed from the popular planning theory being taught in academia today. "If planning practice is essentially a matter of interpersonal relations... which shape public attention, understanding and expectations - it cannot be reduced to technical calculation" (292). Hillier feels that planning practice is in danger of becoming imprisoned by the organizing rules that planning theory has created.
Hiller relates her argument to the Aristotelian concepts of Episteme, Techne and Phronesis. As defined by Aristotle, Episteme is "science or scientific knowledge" (293). The academic culture of planning, based on the 'knowable' and universal truth, has resulted in an entrenched dogma which embraces hard fact. Aristotle's idea of Techne, on the other hand, is defined as technical skill concerned with "...variables rather than that which is fixed; with pragmatics rather than universals" (293). But Techne leads a planner to believe that anything can be reduced to simple statistics, which in turn, conform to the rules of planning. Episteme and Techne in their purest forms are impersonal, objective, dispassionate and free from values. These two principles are based on the assumption that "there is (a) basic standpoint which can capture the world" (293), leaving little 'gray area' for discussion, much less interpretation.
Hillier translates Phronesis as "common sense, practical wisdom or prudence" (294). It is this type of reasoning that provides the critical link between knowledge and action. Phronesis is concerned with the particular, taking into consideration not only the concrete, knowable facts, but the conditions in which the facts are generated. Phronesis requires a planner to use insight and sensitivity in interpreting the particulars in a given situation. By centering planning on "dialogue, mutual respect and understanding...phronesis (and planning itself) is saved form dissolving into mere common sense and becomes the basis for practical reason that satisfies the criteria of procedural rationality" (294). Hillier highlights feminism as a modern day example of the success of Phronesis in its acknowledgment of "diverse perspectives, pluralities and differences" (295).
Finally, Hillier encourages planning education to broaden it's
theoretical base beyond the unquestioned assumption, foster debate
and discussion about alternate forms of knowing and explore stratagies
that address the paradox of satisfying people's individual desires
while planning for the public good. "I regard planning as
a form of 'public philosophy', in which wisdom involves far more
than technical knowledge" (295), Hillier concludes. Ultimately,
she calls for a balance of Episteme, Techne and Phronesis in educating
students; acknowledging the fact that values, wisdom and technical
knowledge are often intertwined in the daily work of planners.
By focusing on the reciprocal relationship between the means and
ends of planning, students can learn to " think flexibly,
to question, to exercise judgment appropriate to particular instances
and to be reflective" (296).
HOCH, C. (1984) Doing good and being right: The pragmatic connection in planning theory, Journal of the American Planning Association, 50, 335-345.
Review by Chad Bergo
Mainstream American planning theorist have adopted a concept of planning that is amazingly similar to the concept of human action proposed by the philosopher John Dewey, they have built a bridge to close the gap between being right and doing good, using a scaffolding that combines identification of problems, formulation of plans, and democratic participation.
Those interested in doing good refer to planning as a predominantly moral and political preoccupation. They justify planning activity in terms of the good effect it will have for the public. For those interested in being right, planning denotes a technical activity that is justified by its ability to analyze events coherently and accurately. Predictability and probability become the criteria of effective plans. Proponents of being right focus on the methodological or technical qualities of planning activity, and they defend their actions by referring to the validity and reliability of the analytical procedures used by them.
Hoch's argument in this article is that most mainstream American planning theories have tended to reject giving privileged or exclusive expression to either interest, seeking instead to build an argument that will satisfy both doing good and being right in a single theory. He believes that they have done so by adopting a pragmatic conception of human action. Pragmatism is a philosophy of action rather than of knowing or being.
Hoch focused on the work of Dewey and the three pragmatic concepts of problematic experience, experimental inquiry, and democratic participation. Dealing with problematic experience, Dewey states that problems arise not from immediate sensations or comprehensive ideals, but through active experience with a disruptive environment. Dewey argues that to be right means to do good and vice versa. Intelligent inquiry enables us to adjust to changes in our environment that have disrupted the continuity of our experience in the form of problems. With democratic participation, Dewey believed that the face of conflict among different groups, the public interest would be served best through intelligent and reflective transaction. In other words, the primary transactions of a democratic policy would consist of such activities as bargaining, negotiation, and persuasive argument rather than regulations or commands.
Hoch then selected the four most widely used authors, each of
whom fell into a different philosophy. He analyzed how each work
relies on the three pragmatic concepts of action-problematic experience,
experimental inquiry, and democratic participation-to bridge the
gap between being right and doing good. Hoch summarizes the articles
and states that they all attempt to overcome the split between
being right and doing good using the three elements of pragmatic
action that were central to the thought of John Dewey. Each author
conceives of planning as a process of practical inquiry in which
problematic experience stimulates the critical assessment of alternative
solutions in a context of democratic participation and debate.
BRYSON, J.M. (1995) The strategy change cycle, in Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, Rev. Ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
FREIDMANN, J. (1995) Teaching planning theory, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 156-162.
Review by Ron Mullenbach
The goal of Friedman in writing "Teaching Planning Theory" was to organize a "basic language, core or literature and conceptual framework" for planning educators. In the past, there has been little consistency among educators on such basic things as what the term planning theory should mean and how the subject of planning theory should be taught. In fact, two surveys of planning theory courses undertaken by Richard E. Klosterman (1981, 1992) found no overlap in 1,500 and 1,300 bibliographical entries, respectively.
In order to develop a framework for planning theory education, Friedman relied on some basic assumptions: That the history of planning and planning ethics were to be taught in a course separate from planning theory; That the object of planning theory should be to improve the planning practice, and; That there were five identifiable modes of theorizing that should become the central framework for an introductory course in planning theory.
Friedman identified the five modes of theorizing about planning as applied rationality, societal guidance, behavioral approaches and communicative practice, the linking of knowledge to action or social learning, and radical planning/ emancipatory practice. It was these five modes that Friedman thought should constitute the framework for planning theory courses. Each mode was grouped together with a listing of important literature and authors in each mode. Friedman stressed the combination of literature review, lecture, and small discussion groups in planning theory courses.
Friedman recognizes that educating planning students of planning
theory is centrally important to the profession as a whole. In
addition, he also recognizes the importance of each mode in a
comprehensive review of planning theory. Students should get a
complete view of planning theories so that overall they will improve
the planning profession. As Friedman says, planning theory is
"integrally a part of our collective thinking about how to
conduct our public affairs."
HUDSON, B.M. (1979) Comparison of current planning theories: Counterparts and contradictions, Journal of the American Planning Association, 45, 387-398.
BEAUREGARD, R. (1995) Edge critics, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 163-166.
FISCHER, R. (1995) Planning theory as culture and experience, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 173-178.
Review by Heming Zhu
Planning theory, a set of principles applied to all the planing practice that it fit with no exceptions, does provide planners with methodological framework directing their professional practice. However, given the complicated idiosyncrasies of planning theory itself : overlapping with the theory of other social science disciplines, and having various scope and function contingent on concrete objects, planning theory could not be more than general one which practitioners largely disregard it in practice. Thus, in terms of planning education, raises the question: how can planning theory reaching, especially given master's education-a just two year professional oriented curriculum, be useful for student's further professional practice? in another way, how can planning students practically learn from the courses of planning theory? Raphael Fischer's article Planning Theory as Culture and Experience offers us a concrete and reasonable approach, that is, integrating planning culture and experience into planning theory courses.
In his points of view, his approach can be attained by offering two kinds of courses: A combined history/theory course, and a course on planning practice.
Teaching the history of planning on a planning theory course can help students understand that planning theory is an evolving part of planning culture, and that also is a social and political phenomenon; on the other hand, teaching planning theories within the background of historical context from which they emerged will encourage students use a more critical attitude toward dominant model of planning and deeper appreciation for the intellectual dimension of their profession, and thus, help them to structure planning processes and guide decision making.
In general, for students, a combined history/theory course or a course on planning culture will be helpful, as the author put it, either to their understanding of the profession or their day to day problems.
A thorough understanding of planning profession, however, is still not enough; planners also need a set of special skills to get the job done. These skills, as the author listed, include facilitating the negotiated planning; defining the problems in the public domain; effective intervention strategies; knowing about the political dynamics that bear on a solution of the problem; knowing how to get new and pertinent knowledge; and knowing the relationship among the problem dynamics, intervention strategies, and images of the good society. These skill can be nurtured by offering a course on planning practice. Because, such course can integrate planning theory into methods so that student would learn how to appreciate theory in practice; and also, by telling stories of profession practice on course, can stir the imagination of the students to help students (although indirect) to experience a variety of situations and issues which they are likely to confront in their future profession. Thus, by such training in the course, students would get the opportunity to develop their own creative ways of thinking of planning, and their own effective ways to get the right things done.
Offering the first course (culture one) would tell students stories
of planning from a historical and collective perspective,
while the second one (experience one) from an ethnographic
and individual perspective. And together, both two courses
would enable future professionals to learn to anticipate and
solve problems of practice.
INNES, J.E. (1995) Planning theory's emerging paradigm: Communicative action and interactive practice, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 183-189.
by Chigon Kim
The author introduces a new planning theory seeing that planning is a communicative action and interactive practice.
It is an emerging paradigm which closes the gap between theory and practice in planning by documenting what planners do and reflecting critically on that planning. Friedman classifies the communicative action theorists including Forester and Healey as "behavioral approaches and communicative practice" and "social learning". The author says that some of them introduced social learning theory and the work of Frankfurt school of critical theorists. These theorists challenge the dilemmas in systematic thinking such as the impossibility of aggregating incommensurable values and limitations of systematic analytic methods.
The study of practice in planning suggests that usefulness of information depends on social process, and that the majority of planners are political actors as well as technicians.
The author introduces the Habermas' work, "Theory of Communicative Action" as the principle framework. Habermas focuses on critical or emancipatory ways of thinking, challenging assumptions for uncovering power relations, and opposing the status quo. The method of knowing, according to Habermas, includes self - reflection to identify one's own rationalizations, discourse or dialectic to illuminate the many side of reality, praxis or practical know - how to uncover concepts and assumptions, and conversion experience of critique into action. Habermas suggests principles for a process of learning and deciding including assuring representation of all major points of view, equalizing information among group members, and creating conditions so that the force of argument can be the deciding factor rather than an individual's power outside the group. This form of learning is termed communicative rationality.
For further research, the author suggests the necessity of development in the fields of institutional design and ethics.
Questions
1. Why does the communicative action theory have meaning in planning theories ?
2. What is the role of a critical planner, according to this theory ?
3. What are the difficulties in and limitations of this theory ?
4. How can we develop intersubjective rationality through communicative action ?
Can we apply the 5 - step process for moral negotiation by Bernard Rosen ?
How about for the rule of political process ?
SAGER, T. (1995) Teaching planning theory as order or fragments?
Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 166-173.
VERMA, N. (1995) What is planning practice? The search for suitable categories, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14, 178-182.
Review by Jill Cornman
Verma argues that while past theorists discussed the nature and constitution of planning, today's theorists debate in more contextual terms such as case studies and lessons from practice. No one, however, has offered a precise definition of practice which sets forth its boundaries and substance. Verma discusses "an essential tension" within planning, attempts to justify planning theory, and proposes an organizational system for the study of planning theory. The author's main points are as follows.
I. "An essential tension for planning" exists between breadth of scope for planning and the necessary disciplinary bounds.
A. Planning problems are often interconnected.
B. University politics and professional organizations require precise separations between professional disciplines.
II. The justification of planning theory lies in its ability to give direction to planning practice when academic disciplines fail to provide relevant knowledge for active purposes.
A. The science of decision making (i.e. utility theory or cost-benefit analysis) is unable to ensure justice or equality.
B. Planning theory teaches cooperation between disciplines and institutionalizes interdisciplinary organization.
III. Verma argues that purposeful categories (organization according to similar ends and unity of purpose) are more beneficial than structural categories (organization according to similar means and unity of method).
A. Organization according to structural categories stresses the importance of method.
B. Bounds on practice according to purposeful categories place primary importance on action and results.
Discussion Questions
1. Verma begins the article by stating that "...there is little discussion - at least directly - of the boundaries or of the substance of practice." To what extent did the author clarify these points?
2. How do some of the approaches we've been examining (i.e. equity,
strategic, plural, incremental, or synoptic planning) fit into
Verma's concept of structural and purposeful organizations?
MARTZ, W. (1994) The financially correct planning office, Planning,
December, 17-20.
Review by Rebecca Sternquist
Planning agencies across the country are taking Vice President Al Gore's words "reinvent government" to heart. Planners are looking for new ways to improve the delivery of public services at lower costs to the taxpayer. Some of the examples are as simple as writing shorter memos and using both sides of the paper. Other planning agencies are laying off staff and doubling up positions. The following are some tips for saving time and serving customers.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
SPENCER, J.A. (1979) Planning agency management, in So, Stollman, Beal & Arnold, eds., The Practice of Local Government Planning. Washington, DC: ICMA.
Review by Jeff Samuels
Due to the depth at which the author examines the topic of planning
for agency management I believe the major points of the article
can best be conveyed to the reader in outline form. However, to
immediately digress from my previous statement, I should first
like to provide concise overview. The authors set out in this
article to demonstrate the importance of planning agencies in
improving the quality of community life. The article examines
the ways in which planning work is organized and discusses many
aspects of planning including planning activities, planning models,
placements within organizational structures, agency relationships,
and trends.
I. Planning Agency Activities. A planning agency's structure should reflect the tasks it is to carry out: form follows function. Some of these task include:
II. The Planning Network. There are few communities in which planning is done exclusively by one agency. Over the years, planning activities have expanded both formally and informally resulting in a loose network of planning activities and entities. The parts of the network include planning within:
III. Alternative Organizational Models
2. Structure.
3. Roles.
4. Advantages.
5. Disadvantages.
B. The Planning Department.
1. Structure.
a. Reports to chief executive.
b. Informal linkage to Planning Commission.
c. Conducts both line and staff functions.
d. Formal links to other staff agencies.
2. Roles.
a. Direct operational authority vested in planning agency.
b. Diminishes role of Planning Commission to advisory function.
3. Advantages.
a. Chief executive becomes proponent of planning issues/department.
b. Planning receives higher priority.
c. Increased budget support.
d. Fosters long term planning.
4. Disadvantages.
a. More planning authority to bureaucracy.
b. Planning department serves two masters: Chief exec. and planning comm.
C. Community Development Department.
1. Structure.
a. Umbrella agency which brings together several departments related to planning.
b. Similar structure to planning department in terms of informal links to Planning Commission.
2. Roles.
a. Coordinate planning activities among related agencies.
b. Planning united through implementation activities.
3. Advantages.
a. Enhanced coordination of planning activities.
b. Enhanced coordination among related agencies.
4. Disadvantages
a. Planning department serves three masters: chief executive, planning commission, and department head.
b. Planning department too far down in organization for influence.
D. Separate Lines and Staff Departments
1. Structure.
a. Two separate agencies: line agency and staff agency.
b. Informal links to planning commission and to one another.
2. Roles.
a. Staff agency serves as planning advisor to chief executive on all government planning issues.
b. Line agency primarily concerned with the orderly physical development of the community.
3. Advantages.
a. Increased influence with chief executive on planning issues.
b. Opportunities for enhanced coordination with planning agencies and other government agencies (ie. budget).
4. Disadvantages.
a. Multiple masters "problem."
b. Line and staff agencies are in competition for resources and influence.
c. Turf issues and lack of coordination between line/staff could arise.
Conclusion:
In all four models both the planning Commission members and the professional staff are present. For planning to effective it is important that Commission and staff have a good working relationship. Additionally, it is clear professional staff are gaining authority at the expense of the planning commission. Moreover, professional staff are being drawn into a closer relationship with the chief executive resulting in commissions reverting to an earlier role of primarily representation and policy review.
So too, the model selected depends on numerous variables including:
size of the city, local planning needs, and the placement of the
agency within the city's organizational framework.
IV. Subdividing the Planning Department.
A. Function.
1. Dividing the planning agency into units promotes efficiency by clarifying responsibilities of each unit.
2. Promotes specialization among generalists.
B. Method of Division.
1. Function: organized around major function, ie. land use, transportation, etc.
2. Process: organized by process or skills necessary for agency to carry out its work, ie. research, appeals, etc.
3. Time organized according to time increments associated with its work, ie. long term, short term, current planning.
4. Area: organized around major geographic units, ie. neighborhood, waterfront, business district, etc.
Most agencies organize by blending several of these factors into an organization that is most responsive to the needs of the community.
C. Advantages.
1. Improved public access.
2. Leads to specialization.
3. On-the-job training makes more efficient use of subprofessional personnel.
4. Protects the continuity of long-range planning by precluding
personnel shifts for "brushfire" work.
V. Relationships.
Communications between a planning agency and other governmental units are an important aspect of an agency's success. Formal relationships are characterized by organizational charts. Just as important are the informal relationships between these groups. The informal ebb and flow of information within the planning network contributes greatly to the effectiveness of the planning agency. It should be noted that informal contacts should never supersede formal ones.
As for the planning agency, this article focuses on the intergovernmental relations between various groups at various levels.
A. The chief Executive. Relations between the agency and the chief administrator are very important since the chief administrator is the individual most likely to make decisions affecting the agency's budget, policies, and priorities.
B. Local Legislative Body. It is equally important for the planning agency to be on good terms with the city/county council(or its counterpart) do to the body's decision making authority regarding public policy matters, especially budget and zoning issues. So too, elected bodies rely on planning agencies for accurate information and competent staff support.
C. Local Boards and Commissions. Planning agencies need the support of local boards and commissions especially when issues arise before the council. Moreover, good relations with boards and commissions provides the planning agency an entree to pursue policies with the board or commission that support the agency's overall plan for the community. Also, boards and commissions are responsible for "priming actions" which influence other developmental decisions. For instance, approval of sewer lines by a utility commission is a "priming action" for new homesites.
D. Line Departments. Line departments are the "front lines" of local government and engage in the day-to-day operation of government services. Even though the planning agency is not always involved in typical line department decisions they are heavily influenced by capital projects initiated by the line departments. These projects must be coordinated with the planning agency's overall plan for the community. This relationship can be fostered through the sharing of data with the line agency or by fiat of the chief executive.
E. Intergovernmental Relations. Relations between governments
are important due to the complex and fragmented decision making
process in where the decisions of one government may impact many
others. Practically speaking, the local planning agency spends
a great deal of time monitoring the programs and actions of others.
Cultivating intergovernmental relations will provide the local
planning agency with influence during the development stages of
anotherÕs policy.
VI. Role of Planning Director.
1. Institutional and administrative leadership.
2. Professional planner.
3. Instigator of political innovation.
4. Citizen educator.
KLOSTERMAN, R.E. (1994) An introduction to the literature on large-scale urban models, Journal of the American Planning Association, 60, 41-44.
Review by Bob Streetar
"To guess is cheap"
"To guess wrongly is expensive"
Chinese Proverb
This is a brief summary of an essay reviewing the literature on large scale urban models. The essay was written for academic and practicing planners who are not familiar with urban model applications.
A model could be defined as a mathematical representation of an observable event(s). One example of a large scale urban model would be City Simulator software i.e. Sim City. It is for entertainment purposes only. The program gives you a budget and asks you to enter a variety of numerical values such as tax rate then allows the you to observe the consequences of your input in terms of land values, pollution, crime, voter satisfaction etc.
A model, allows you to try a number of policy solutions, to determine their effectiveness. This is in opposition to actually implementing an actual solution. A model is a much less expensive method of testing solutions and contending with adverse fiscal, and political consequences is not an issue.
In reviewing the literature the author states models have evolved in their sophistication due to trial an error and to momentous strides in technology. Practically speaking models perform reasonable well in predicting the direction and magnitude of expected policy impacts. However models are only as effective as the data collected, their calibration and validation. Noted deficiencies were not the result of model structure or computational procedures.
In summary models perform well in certain instances, but do have
some limitations as to their applicability. These limitations
maybe overcome by well defined theoretical foundations, more powerful
data storage and analysis as well as improved capabilities of
GIS. Until then the planner will have to make due.
ISSERMAN, A.M. (1984) Projection, forecast, and plan: On the
future of population forecasting, Journal of the American Planning
Association, 50, 208-221.
WATZLAWICK, P., J. WEAKLAND, & R. FISCH. (1974) The gentle art of reframing, in Change: Principles of Problem Formation and Problem Resolution. NY: W.W. Norton.
Review by Toby Brown
Planners, managers, and all readers will find the article "Gentle
Art of Reframing very useful in learning technique and understanding
the idea of reframing. Reframing is a technique that allows one
to convince self and those around them about different ideas of
what reality is. "To reframe, then, means to change the conceptual
and/or emotional setting or viewpoint in relation to which a situation
is experienced and to place it in another frame which fits the
"facts" of the same concrete situation equally well
or even better, and thereby changes its entire meaning (95). In
explaining the idea of reframing the authors use numerous examples
of historical, literary, and situational stories that interpret
this definition. Overall, the idea is that whatever situation
you are in you can reinterpret that situation and hopefully make
better use of it.
The article begins with an example of the character Tom Sawyer
who used reframing to make a boring task of whitewashing a fence
into a sought after Saturday event. Tom examined his own misery
and reframed it to convince himself that it was worth doing. In
making favorable comments about the task to other children he
convinces them to join in. Tom soon discovers that what would
have taken all day is soon done very quickly and without much
of his own effort. Another example in the article showed how a
helpless village avoids the wrath of an invading Spanish army.
The men of the village flee instead of fight and leave the women
and children behind. As the army invades they are surprised to
find a group of women in need of support and protection. This
alternative was much different than the usual rape and pillage
that most advancing armies pursued.
In the article there is also a small discussion of the idea of
what is real. A form of defining real is explained as something
of an agreed upon consensus by a group of people. Real today might
not be the same as tomorrow or that which is across town. This
is a scary idea especially when you examine that individuals should
reframe situations. On the other hand if real is not real then
reframing will allow a better examination of the situation.
Examples within the article seem to put the image of reframing
in a valuable light. Addressing of situations that don't allow
a favorable reframe are never touched. A lot of questions arise
after reading the article as to whether or not reframing is just
a mask of reality. I would agree that it is valuable to use different
views when faced with a situation and to make sure that all of
one's conceptual reality is examined.
The "Gentle Art of Reframing" discusses a tool that
in my opinion can be used in good and bad ways. If used as a tool
to examine and evaluate situations and alternatives it is useful.
It can also be used as a form of misleading another's views and
ideas. Ethical issues arise from the use of reframing on others
in my opinion. The article would defend itself with an example
of a police officer averting a riot by redirecting anger. Whether
or not one agrees with reframing there is plenty of merit in this
article. Examples within are simple yet very successful in showing
the impact of reframing. My main complaint is the way the authors
shine the positive light on the issue. Examination of misuse and
problems would have misplaced some of my fear of what power this
tool has. Reframing doesn't have to be used by someone but it
should be understood in case it is used against them.
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