Writing Conventions

Memos

In writing a memorandum to a staff member in another department, there is a distinct format and style that is suggested:

Format

MEMO

DATE:

TO:

FROM:

RE: Give the memo a heading that summarized its content (remember, this is the information that the secretary will use to decide where to file your memo)

Introductory paragraph—“This is what I am writing about, and why I am writing it.”

Body of memo—This is where the “meat” goes (one or more paragraphs). Include only the essentials, but all the essentials. Make sure you deal with the “So what?” question. A general structure for the body of the memo is:

· Explain your problem;

· Explain the data you gathered, and how you tested it;

· What does the test tell you about your data?

· What do your data tell you about your problem?

Summary paragraph—“This is what I said.”

Conventions about the length of a memo differ. I prefer to limit memos to 2 pages (plus attachments, tables, appendices, etc.). This requires the author to focus on what is most important. If a subject is too complex to summarize in 2 pages, one should consider writing an issue paper instead (but make sure it is worth killing all those extra trees). As Shakespeare said, “Brevity is the soul of wit.” Often, long reports indicate lack of focus rather than importance of topic.

No matter what I prefer, in your professional practice check with your supervisor for her/his preference. But for this course, I am your supervisor.

Footnotes and Bibliography

Due to the succinct, descriptive nature of memos, generally footnotes and bibliography are not included.

Style

· Use concrete (i.e., tied to one of the senses) words and phrases

· Use active verbs, in the active voice

· Use simple sentences: short, subject-verb-object style

· Use paragraph structure to break material into manageable groups (100 words or so)

· Use lists and bullet-points—they add to the ease of reading

· Use Anglo-Saxon English

· Avoid empty words

· Use first person singular if appropriate (no “royal we”)

· Don’t struggle for “elegant variation”

· Use a simpler word whenever possible (eschew obfuscation)

For a more extended discussion of the memo, see Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (OWL)

The Issue Paper

An issue paper (sometimes called a “white paper”) is a staff report to a decision-maker which provides an assessment of everything that is readily available about a particular problem. It is not an in-depth analysis, nor does it require extensive data gathering. It is, rather, a systematic first phase which provides the foundation for further analysis.

An issue paper should focus on four key questions:

· What are the dimensions of the problem?

· What is the effect of the problem on public objectives?

· How can you monitor progress in resolving the problem?

· What current activities are underway? What alternatives should be considered?

Generally speaking, a white paper follows a standard format:

· Executive Summary

· Source and Background of the Problem

· Significance or reasons for attention

· Target Groups or institutions toward which corrective activity is directed

· Beneficiaries

· Related Programs

· Goals and Objectives to be met

· Effectiveness Measures

· Possible Analytical Framework (kinds of alternatives, possible methods, critical assumptions)

· Alternatives (description, effectiveness, costs, spillovers, ranking)

· Recommendations

Depending on the situation and the problem, this format may be modified as long as the four key questions are dealt with. While “Recommendations” are important, the process by which they were derived is equally important in a white paper. While the “Executive Summary” is not always listed as part of the format, it is good practice to include it in any policy paper.

For more detailed information, refer to: Quade, A.S. (1975) Analysis for Public Decisions. NY: Elsevier or David Weimer’s 2007 memo to students in the LaFollette School at the University of Wisconsin

Scholarly Writing (Research Article) with assistance from Raymond Asomani-Boateng

Motivations for writing and publishing

To clarify your own thinking
To contribute to the ongoing scholarly/professional conversation
To establish your authority on the subject
To establish professional credentials

How to write

Finding time
When and where to write
Collaboration with an established scholar
The role of reading

Getting published

Queries and guidelines
Journal mission statements

Usually found in each issue and/or on a website
Use to identify the most likely journal (s) for your manuscript
Use to help mold your manuscript to be relevant to a specific journal

Queries to editors

Queries are welcome
Queries can save time and avoid wasted effort for both you and the journal staff
Use e-mail if possible: include an abstract of your manuscript
Use queries judiciously

Manuscript and submission guidelines

Find and follow them
Author Guidelines (JAPA)

Multiple submissions

Serious no-no
Investment of time and effort in a largely volunteer enterprise
Sanctions against those who make multiple submissions

The Scholarly Paper

Follow tradition –standard parts in standard order

Ensures paper achieves its purpose
Guide the reader to better understand and critically asses the new contribution

Parts

Abstract

Abstracts should generally be no longer than 125 words and have one sentence to answer the each of the following questions:
What is the issue addressed and why is it important for planning theory or practice?
What gaps or misunderstandings in the literature does the research fill or correct?
How was the research conducted?
What are the research findings?
What are the conclusions for planning theory or practice and the implications for further research?

Introduction

Question
Contribution & significance
Logical argument and evidence
At the end of the introduction provide a simple outline or map of material to follow
Your subheadings throughout the paper should reinforce this outline
Your subheadings should indicate the substance
For example an introduction could be labeled “The need for a Land-Use Impact Model” rather than introduction

Literature Review

Identify what is known and not known
Where the gaps are that your research will fill
A useful literature review is a purposeful story that explains:

How the studies build on each other
What are the questions?
What does the previous literature mean
What are the unanswered questions
What limitations and gaps your new study will avoid and fill respectively

Provide practical guidance in conducting your research

Methodology

Explain what data was collected and sources
How you sampled
How you collected it
How you coded it
And how you analyzed it
Discuss any limitations, drawbacks or possible biases in your methodology and what you did to compensate for the problem

Results/ Findings

Present your findings clearly and directly
Graphs, charts and maps helps complement or illustrate your text
Present only the evidence you need to support your new contribution

Discussion

Loops back to “Literature” discussion
Focus on your contribution
Why should we care
Why this paper is important
Tying your research to the relevant literature helps to construct your conceptual framework
How the results contribute to the main quest of your paper
Questions that remain unanswered, new questions that are raised

Conclusions

Return to your original important question and recap your answer
Examine the implications for policy and further research
Can add recommendations

Why papers are rejected

Paper is not appropriate for the journal
The paper is in fact a term paper that has not been revised—you ought to have a senior colleague or a great person in the field to do it
It is difficult to find out what the contribution is: Be sure the contribution is clearly stated upfront
Methodology is problematic
The grammar is awful and the sentences are opaque. Readers cannot figure it out
The paper is much too long given the average length of papers in the journal
You have not credited previous work; you did not follow the recommended format for journal submissions; your Xeroxing is awful; there are missing pages

Guidelines for Technical Writing

· Brevity is a by-product of vigor.

· Omit needless words.

· Sentences are made stronger, as a rule, when they become shorter.

· Avoid tame, noncommital words and phrases (“weasel words”).

· Use specific, concrete language instead of vague, abstract language.

· Avoid “there is,” “there are,” “because of the,” “that is,” “kind of”….

· Judicious use of lively, colorful words makes for forcible writing.

· Avoid jargon (especially words ending in “-ize,” “-ive,” “-ization,” “-ise”).

· The active voice makes for forcible writing.

· Occasionally vary sentence structure to maintain reader attention and avoid monotony.

· Don’t run several words or phrases together trying to illustrate an abstract concept.

· Be consistent about related ideas and words.

· Express coordinate ideas in similar form.

· Keep related words and ideas together.

· Clarify! Clarify!

· Dig for the word that’s closest to your meaning.

· Make sure a sentence says exactly what you want it to tell.

· Do not use a negative unless you intend a denial.

· Express a negative in its positive form. Don’t evade—confront!

· Use topic sentences at the beginning of paragraphs.

· Key words can be put at the end of a sentence for emphasis. But use it sparingly.

· Avoid colloquialisms.

· Check your spelling.

· Avoid frequent repetition of the same word.

· Don’t attribute animate powers to inanimate objects.

· Watch for redundancies, such as “mutually agreed,” “very unique,” etc.

· Verb tense should be consistent throughout.

· “Data” are plural (a single point is a “datum”).

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